MALARIA Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

MALARIA - Research Paper Example The disease was first effectively managed from the early 17th Century following the understanding of Quinine by Jesuit Priests through their interaction with indigenous tribes of the New World. The cause of the disease remained unknown until 1880. That year Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, a French army surgeon, became the first person to propose that the disease was caused by organisms he had observed in malaria-infected blood. Further discoveries over the course of the Century yielded that the disease were caused by Plasmodium species and was spread by mosquitoes. During that period, other antimalarial treatments were discovered. From the 1960s onwards, there were global eradication efforts conducted mainly through outdoor and indoor spraying of insecticides by DDT and other insecticides to control mosquitoes and other pests. However, this had detrimental effects on the environment primarily on the climate and on local fauna and increased resistance from insecticides by mosquitoes. In 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 1.2 billion people are at high risk of malaria. They also estimated that from 198 million malaria cases worldwide, the disease caused an estimated 584,000 deaths with Ninety percent of the deaths occurring in Africa (World Health Organization, 2014). Malaria in humans is caused by four Protozoan species: Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium falciparum. Of the four species, the most common forms are P. vivax and P. falciparum with P. falciparum being the most deadly. P. falciparum contributes to 75% of reported cases and deaths and P. vivax around 20%. P. knowlesi causes malaria in primates. An infected female Anopheles mosquito is the primary host for the disease. On fertilization, female mosquitoes feed on blood to support egg development. By feeding on an infected person, the secondary host, the female mosquito is

Education Essays Public Schools Education

Education Essays Public Schools Education Public Schools Education Abstract Public schools have always been a milestone of the social history of the United States. Despite arguments against them, many education researchers believe they still have an important place in the education process. Schools supervisors play an important role in education with a potential to extend their role in evaluation as needed in education reform. The aim of this essay is to provide a brief yet a comprehensive review on the arguments on public education, school supervision, and evaluation of education and school supervisors. Supervising and public schools Public education is a milestone in the US social history. The society is multicultural and ethnically diverse thus; public schools were an endeavor to create a consistent society, starting by young people, through providing a common prospectus coming up from the newly rising Anglo-American culture. The people of the US live a long dated democratic political tradition; therefore, they look at education as a key feature to the principle of equal opportunity. In addition, because of the capitalist economy is one with high competition, education becomes essential to success. Most Americans translate the phrase public education as run by elected civil authorities, and supported by taxpayers so these schools should provide free education. However, schools, by this definition, did not exist in colonial America. Thus, the roots of public education may have come from British Grammar schools, missionary (Spanish) schools in Mexico and Latin America, and possibly the underground secret (clandestine) schools of black slaves. Public education systems reflect the societys preconceptions, economic and political conflicts, and social ranking. Therefore, second to national defense, no government-provided service attracted the attention of the public in the US as education does (Encyclopedia of American Social History, 1993). Arguments on public education West (1994) looked at the history of public (government financed) education in both UK and the U.S, and came out with statements that disapprove the common notion the state should be the major supervisor and support to education. West (1994) showed that percentage of government spending on school education in UK was almost the same before and after schooling laws in 1830. The author inferred that measuring the educational output by the ability to read and write shows no large effect of government involvement. In addition, West (1994), claimed the ultimate development of the public education system was essentially the outcome of the endeavors of individuals managing it, motivated by self-interest. Thus, the result was to substitute, not to support and reinforce the earlier private education system. Young and Block (1999), summarized the arguments in favor of public education, they suggested four categories. The first argument for public education is the assertion that it produces large positive outcome irrespective of cost (economic argument). In other words, by public education rising generations benefit the society as a whole. Therefore, it is logic for the society to share in how to educate, disburse the cost of education, and does not pass on the process completely to private enterprises. In addition, increased economic productivity of educated people reflects on the productivity of the society. A second channel is that public education ensures the moral ideas, concepts, and beliefs the system needs to put in our children. This may not have a direct economic impact but its effect on crime rates, drug abuse and youth culture is evident if proper guidance and coaching are available. Second argument is that public education is necessary because parents may not be adequately educated to choose suitable schooling for their children (education argument). However, whether this argument is an advantage to the public system teaching the youth what the public body wants rather that what they or their parents want, remains open to discussion. This argument explains at most one generation of public education, after that this generation should be able to choose an education for their children. Third, the substantial resources of the government are what can provide proper investment in human capital. In addition, even if most parents can afford educating their children, however, the young generation cannot afford to pay education costs for themselves. A strong argument against a total private system of education (democratic argument) is it endorses and spreads inequality. Children coming from rich backgrounds should not superior education, and added chance of success, irrespective of their skills and abilities. The fact that family environment is a significant forecaster of school performance, increases the effect of this argument. The basic fact remains, since education is important for the public, public education should be available (Young and Block, 1999). School Supervision The rationale (philosophy) of school supervision: The basic objective for education is to provide an environment where all students can learn and eventually become successful and productive members of society.  There are six concepts to succeed as a leader of a school and be able to put this philosophy into action: vision, culture, management, community, ethics, and politics.   The choices to lead (supervise or coach) are the teacher’s response of vision of the education philosophy and aim, practical theories and are affected at the same time by the teachers personality and response to certain situations. Keeping this vision ensures that successful leadership leads to students achievements (Sergiovanni, 2006). Teachers should try to create a tailored plan for all students to ensure that meets everyone’s needs.   The classroom teacher’s must oversee this plan by frequent assessments.   These assessments will guide instructing the students to ensure making that progress for all students.   A supervisor must provide training for teachers, so they meet the eventual goal.   (Nanus, 1992). The culture of the school as a learning community depends on two essential understandings; first, the school is a place where all staff personnel are committed to the success of the school. Second, a learning community is one that accepts others and their differences, and is a community that establishes an environment of good morals as caring and mutual respect.   Developing a school culture is a necessity to develop a learning community. In this respect, supervisors represent the model behavior that sets the school culture (Rooney, 2005). The school community is not only the people within the school, it is the community outside the school related to and mixed up with the school students (as family and community businesses). Thus, the school leader must understand the needs of the community where the school is (Epstein, 1995). In managing resources, the school leadership must guarantee that all school sections receive satisfactory awareness.   A school leader must have a clear vision for student accomplishment and learning curve.   Teachers and support staff dealing with students must have a matching vision, as they are members of the school team. School ethics relates mainly to shared and common caring, respect and decency. The school leader must be an ethical role model for those in the school, and must display the spirit of standard morals and professional standards at all times.   The leader must be an example to respect, even-handedness, reliance, and integrity in all decisions.   This will promote the highest morals and ethics throughout the school personnel and gain parent’s trust (Sergiovanni, 2006). Supervisors and Education reform: In education reform, educational supervisors need to add concepts of coaching to the scope of their mission to be able to readjust the notion of educational supervisor. There is no clear definition to educational coaching, yet the term implies teaching, supervising, building, and following up the learning and skill development curve of students. This sounds similar in many ways to supervision, it is true there are connections between ideas and procedures of both terms. Van Kessel (2007) was more direct in describing the mainstay qualities of coaching. As described by Van Kessel (2007), coaching represents individualized, mutual effort, spotlights students’ progress, and focuses on results. Its center of attention is on developing solutions and not only on analyzing problems. It looks at objectives development and goal establishment in cooperation among the coach, teachers and students. It needs building up a methodical goal-directed process to advance goal achievement. Further, the coach should motivate student responsiveness to support learning and development. Finally, coaching focuses at stimulating self-directed and self-reflective learning, and at developing self-regulated progress to back unremitting change (van Kessel, 2007, English translation). Evaluation of education and school supervisors Formative-Summative evaluation: Defining formative assessment points to the assumptions and actions educators can take based on the results of an assessment; in other words, it is progression of plans and practices following an appraisal. Integrating the perception of formative assessment in education occurred over 35 years ago into the practice of education. In procedural terms, it means that students do not advance to the forecoming learning objective unless they pass an assessment in the present one. Finishing a specific learning unit, the teacher initiates an exercise based on a standardized teaching method. The teacher conducts an assessment for that unit, based on the students’ results; the teacher then classifies students into those who have mastered the unit and those who are not. For the unsuccessful group, the teacher employs diagnostic information collected from the assessment to apply corrective action usually in the form of directions to support the student’s weaknesses in understanding the subjects of the test. Thus, an essential point of formative assessment concept is that its main objective is to heighten students’ teaching (William, 2006). Formative assessment may take many forms (verbal, writing, small or focus group†¦) depending on the aims of evaluation and the students skills teaching aimed to develop (William, 2006). Summative evaluation, on the other hand, is a product (education) evaluation (Jeffs and Smith, 2005). It aims at evaluating the outcome and efficiency of an initiative, a process or a project (as education). Thus, it emphasizes on the aims and consequences of education. It seeks to clarify if a process working in a certain place can work in another place with the same conditions. In simple words, Summative evaluation is a way to decide the value of an education program at the end its activities. Thorough complete (comprehensive) testing or widespread all-inclusive (full-field) studies are the common methods of performing summative assessment. Its main use is to collect data on the effect of a running program in society for sometime (Jeffs and Smith, 2005). Role of supervisors as it relates to evaluation School supervisors perform three interlinking roles, they are control and assessment, providing support and offer guidance, and take the part of liaison (connection) officer between the higher education authorities and the school. The control function relates closely to inspection, and covers educational and administrative domains. This control function relates to evaluation of teachers and assisting staff. Support and guidance functions whether to teachers or student need knowledge of evaluation both formative and summative. Connecting schools with higher educational authorities is a form of upright liaison function; however, supervisors can also play a parallel horizontal liaison role spreading ideas and creating a school learning environment among the staff and students. There is an increasing awareness’ that supervisors role should extend to system evaluation because there is a need to education reform and increasing the quality function of the available schools (International Institute of Educational Planning (UNESCO), 2007) Conclusion My idea of a school supervisor entails belief, hope, and engagement in students’ interests. My belief is teacher supervision is more like coaching a team coming up with reliable and genuine ideas that can be signs of devotion and real hard work of teachers. I also believe in the important role public schools play in the society and that education reform should start within the school environment first. My hope is to be able to achieve the high expectations of a school supervisor in advancing students’ learning, share positively in teaching planning and processes, and fulfill my responsibilities in creating a caring and respectable learning environment. I can assess the students’ interests and needs as well as assess the quality of school supervision through performing continuous evaluation. I will also be able to recognize where I can improve the teachers performance and to prove professional endeavors that will help improving the process of public education. I will have my share in backing the commitments to the state law and policies of board of education as well as the district education guidelines documents. References Encyclopedia of American Social History (Volume 3) (1993). The American Religious Experience. Retrieved 10/06/2008, from Epstein, J. (1995). School/family/community partnerships: caring for the children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9), 701-712. International Institute of Educational Planning (UNESCO). (2007). Reforming school supervision for quality improvement: Module 2: Roles and functions of supervisors. Paris: IIIEP/UNESCO. Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (2005). Informal Education. Conversation, democracy and learning (3rd edition). Nottingham: Educational Heretics Press. Nanus, B. (1992). Visionary leadership: creating a compelling sense of direction for your organization. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley Sons Inc. Rooney, J. (2005). School culture: an invisible essential. Educational Leadership, 62(5), 86. Sergiovanni, T. (2006). The principalship: a reflective practice perspective (5th edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Van Kessel, L. (2007). Coaching, a field for professional supervisors. Ljetopis socijalnog rada, 14(2), 387-432. West, E G (1994). Education and the state. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund Inc. William, D. (2006). Formative assessment: Getting the focus right. Educational Assessment, 11(34), 283-289. Young, A and Block, W. (1999). Enterprising Education: Doing Away with the Public School System. International Journal of Value-Based Management, 12, 195-207.

Conflict in Parkers Back Essay -- Literary Analysis

Who can dare say they have never encountered a conflict? No one is without conflict; there will never be a person who says they have never faced a problem. What is a conflict? Most think an opposition or a struggle of some nature. It can be that and more, to state it simply its man vs. anything; that anything can be nature, God, self, and even fellow man. Many of these can be observed in Parker’s Back written by Flannery O’Connor. Parker’s Back is a short story about a man named O.E. Parker who is obsessed with tattoos; the irony is he marries a religious woman who loathes tattoos. In Parker’s Back there are three types of conflict that appear man vs. man, man vs. self, and man vs. God. Man vs. Man is a conflict that can be seen throughout the story. For example, when Parker is telling his wife Sarah Ruth about his tattoos. â€Å" â€Å"I got most of my other ones in foreign parts,† Parker said. â€Å"These here I mostly got in the United States. I got my first one when I was only fifteen years old.† â€Å"Don’t tell me,† the girl said, â€Å"I don’t like it. I ain’t got any use for it.† â€Å"You ought to see the ones you can’t see,† Parker said and winked† (O’Connor 2). Sarah automatically shows her distaste for them, later on even going so far as to call Parker a fool for having them. This particular problem can be witnessed though out the rest of the story. This struggle does not end even when the audience has arrived to the end of the story. For instance, when Parker slams his hand in the hood part of the car. â€Å" â€Å"God dammit!† he hollered, â€Å"Jesus Christ in hell! Jesus God Almighty damn! God dammit to hell!† he went on, flinging out the same few oaths over and over as loud as he could. Without warning a terrible bristly claw slammed the side of his face an... ...n v. self, and man vs. God are all types of conflicts that appear in the short story Parker’s Back. Conflict is a major factor in the plot and structure of Parker’s Back. Works Cited Andrews, Charles. "Colored Man: The Ambiguous White Male Body In "Parker's Back." Flannery O'connor Review 6. (2008): 70-80. Literary Reference Center. Web. 19 Feb. 2012. Cofer, Jordan. "The "All-Demanding Eyes": Following The Old Testament And New Testament Allusions In Flannery O'connor's "Parker's Back." Flannery O'connor Review 6.(2008): 30-39. Literary Reference Center. Web. 19 Feb. 2012. O'Connor, Flannery. Parker's Back. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1965. Everything That Rises Must Converge. Web. 19 Feb. 2012. .

Freedom Writers Essay Essay

What life holds for us is determined by how much we are willing to sacrifice. In the movie Freedom Writers, Ms. G is the main character. Her way of viewing life gives hope to the people surrounding her. In this essay, I am going to compare her willingness to sacrifice with the sacrifice I was once asked to make. Ms. G dedicated herself to teaching a difficult group of students. California had integrated the school system, which resulted in a culture of conflict and violence. She spent a lot of her time and gave up a lot of her family life in order to help people that she barely knew. Her desires to make a change were clear and honest. For example, she took evening and weekend jobs in order to buy books and take her students on trips. She also made herself available to help students with personal issues. She had a strong desire to help her students understand that they were worthwhile, and that whatever challenges they faced, they could make their lives better. As a result of these efforts, her students learned to trust her and became united with each other. They began to feel hope for their future. Even though Ms. G. experienced success and satisfaction in helping others, she faced opposition. Her marriage was jeopardized. Her husband could not understand why she spent so much time and energy with her students, and he often felt second in her life. He did try to cope with this lifestyle, but it was too much for him to deal with and he finally left the relationship. I also embarked on a similar adventure. In June 2002, I was called to serve as a missionary for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Denver, Colorado. While on my mission, I taught the gospel to Spanish speaking people. Like Ms. G, I was dedicated to a good cause working with Hispanic people. I also immersed myself in helping those people to overcome personal and family challenges. I sacrificed two years of my life to serve people I had never met. I did it with all my heart. I knew that teaching people how to apply correct principles in their lives was the best way for them to achieve happiness. My goal was to help others to understand the true gospel of Jesus Christ. Teaching people the principles I knew to be true helped them to improve their lives and find joy as well. For example, I remember one person I taught; his name was Enrique. He was addicted to drugs and alcohol. When I found Enrique he told me that, from using drugs, he had lost his sense of taste and his body was no longer able to produce sweat. He also shared with me that his life had no purpose. He would go to work to get money to buy drugs, which created an endless cycle. I felt deep sorrow for him and wanted to do something to help him. I taught him about how to overcome his addictions to drugs and alcohol. Eventually, Enrique was able to overcome these addictions. I helped him to learn English and he began school at a University. Later, he told me how grateful he was for the new direction that his life was taking. Not only was my service similar to Ms. G’s, but my challenges were also. My family was upset about me going away for so long because while I was away, I would not be able to help them financially. They told me that if I went, I might as well forget about them. â€Å"It’s either a mission or us,† they said. I knew that I could not abandon my commitment to serve a mission. I pled with my family to understand my decision, but they reluctantly dismissed me. Once I was in the mission in Colorado, I tried to write to my family to let them know I was okay and that I was making a difference in the world by helping people to overcome many of the challenges that tear individuals and families apart. My family never answered my letters. I knew that what I was doing was right, but having my family reject me in those difficult years made me feel abandoned. Nonetheless, I was determined to continue working to help the people in Colorado. Certainly, my experience was a much shorter period of time than Ms. G’s and eventually my family embraced me again, while Ms. G’s husband never returned. Also, she taught the same group of people for four years, whereas I traveled around and met new people. Nevertheless, during the time I served my mission, I, like Ms. G, learned what it means to give everything for a good cause regardless of the adversity. As Ms. G and I both persevered in doing what we felt was right, we discovered great meaning in our lives and the work we were doing. In conclusion, our ability to fulfill our duty is not determined by our environment or surroundings. Ms. G and I have shown that if people’s hearts are in the right place, their rewards can be greater than what they lose. Our service, strength, and willingness can make a difference in the world regardless of who we are, or what we are standing for.

Modern Management Essay

Today, individuals are sometimes naà ¯ve to believe that modern management is a result of recent practices, theories, and ideas. Some believe the general structure of management and how human resources are carefully planned is the direct result of today’s contributors. They are erroneous to believe such. This commentary will explore the histories of management while cultivating the reader concerning the development of modern management and supervision as it is the result of the evolution of management that began in the nineteenth century involving slavery, railroads, and legal issues. Assignment 1.2 – Development of Modern Management Modern management has a distinctive composition consisting of managers, administrative practices, personnel, and capital. Many individuals are naà ¯ve in their perception of today’s management believing it is a direct result of recent practices, theories, and concepts; however, historians argue differently. Historians have taken readers on a journey through the history of management, while educating people concerning the management of slaves, railroads, and legal issues – the pillars of modern-day management. Slavery â€Å"American slavery has been wrongfully excluded from histories of management. By 1860, when the historical orthodoxy has modern management emerging on the railroads, 38,000 managers were managing the 4 million slaves working in the US economy.† (Cooke, 2003) Slave trade greatly influenced the management era. Slaves were responsible for farming, construction, irrigation, housekeeping, child-care, cooking, and much more. This surplus of human resources and capital required managers which eventually led divisions of management. Slave owners hired managers to supervise the slaves while wives oftentimes supervised slaves who worked as housekeepers and cooks. Managers were responsible for setting the expectations of the slaves and theirrespective daily duties. Slave owners oftentimes delegated authority and responsibilities to the manager who in-turn commanded the workers. Although slave management contributed to modern management practices, it has not been viewed by many histor ians to be a form of management. â€Å"Throughout the era of slavery the Negro was treated in a very inhuman fashion. He was considered a thing to be used, not a person to be respected. He was merely a depersonalized cog in a vast plantation machine.† (Cooke, 2003) The treatment of slaves and the criticism of such behavior as seen today have led many individuals to overlook slave management as a contribution to modern principles and ideas. Many historians prefer to give more credit to the railroads. â€Å"Of course, such a history would equally challenge any version of the history of management which explicitly or otherwise excludes slavery.† (Cooke, 2003) Slavery brought about new and innovative ideas regarding human resources. Slaves worked the plantations, which sometimes were hundreds of acres, and they were managed by individuals designated by the owner. Managing slaves required a great deal of time management, conflict resolution, capital expenditures, and even slave trading. â€Å"The chain of command went upwards from drivers to overseers to masters. Always there was obedience. † (Cooke, 2003) The management of slaves required a chain of command to be operational. Slaves answered to their overseer and overseers answered to their masters. This form of organizational structure allowed for delegation, communication, and duties to flow smoothly. In comparison, modern management structure is quite similar in nature. For example, McDonalds franchise has such a structure. For example, crew members are tasked with the job of handling customer orders, cooking, and cleaning and they answer to a shift leader. The shift leader is responsible for ensuring the crew works diligently and effectively. The shift leader answers to the assistant manager or store manager who is responsible for the overall mission of the store. The store manager would report to the owner or in the case of slavery – master. â€Å"The slaveowner urges the slave to ‘be a man’ and commands the slaves to put things to rights. They gathered around him in their helplessness, trusting implicitly in his judgment, receiving his rapid comprehensive orders† (Cooke, 2003). Likewise, modern management structure delegate managers to encourage and motivate employees to work more effectively and sometimes harder. Although there are compelling reason s whyhistorians choose not to regard the management of slaves as a contribution to modern management, the fact remains that slave owners contributed to the body of knowledge concerning management. Yes, many would agree that slavery was cruel and involved unusual punishment and treatment, but it helped shaped today’s management. †¦it is shown slavery is included within capitalism by many historians; we also see plantations as a site of the emergence of industrial discipline. Second, ante-bellum slavery is demonstrated to have been managed according to classical management and Taylorian principles. Third, those doing the managing are shown to have been employed at the time as ‘managers’. In the idea of the manger, and of scientific and classical management slavery has therefore left an ongoing imprint in management practice and thought. A strong argument is made for not just for postcolonisalist accounts of management, but for management histories in which anti-African-American racism is a continuing strand. The fundamental significance of the article however is its identification of slavery as of intrinsic, but hitherto denied, relevance to management s tudies. (Cooke, 2003) There are many compelling reasons why historians choose to ignore the management of slaves as a contribution to the evolution of management. Some think it will stir up some sort of controversy. Slavery was not the only major contributor to the evolution of management. Railroads  Like slavery, the railroads played a significant role in the evolution of management. â€Å"The railroads had to be innovators in many of the ways of modern corporate management†¦railroad managers were forced to work out the basic methods of communication and control essential to the operations of the modern business corporation.† (Chandler, 1965) Unlike many other industries during 1850’s, the railroads were faced with new challenges that required innovative management and administrative ideas. In an effort to sustain business, the railroads had to devise ways to resolve issues efficiently and effectively. â€Å"The railroaders were innovators not because they were necessarily more perceptive, energetic, or imaginative than other contemporary businessmen, but rather because they were the first to face the challenge of handling efficiently large amounts of men, money, and materials within a single business unit.† (Chandler, 1965) The size and co mplexity of the railroads forced the managers of railroads to be pioneers of management. The railroads required more operating expenses and start-up costs than any other industry during that time. Size was only one dimension of the unique challenges facing managers of the new, large railroads in the 1850’s. Their day-to-day operations called for far many more and far more complex decisions than did the working of a mill, canal, or a steamship line. Unlike a textile company, whose group of mills could be viewed within half an hour, a railroad was spread over hundreds of miles and included a wide variety of activities and facilities such as shops, terminals, stations, warehouses, office buildings†¦and so forth†¦So every day railroad managers had to make decisions controlling the activities of many men to whom they rarely talked or even ever saw. (Chandler, 1965) The railroad managers pioneered corporate management through their skillful use of time, communication, transportation, capital, and human resources. Many new positions within the organization were created to aid management. For example, chief clerks, senior financial officers, and secretaries were just a few positions crafted to help sustain the organization. The chief clerks and financial officers helped the organization use time and finances effectively. In comparison to slavery, the railroads had an unparallel influence on modern management through the use of innovation. Legal Construction Similar to the contributions of slavery and railroad management, legal construction played a role in the evolution of management. During the 1830’s, many industrial plants were ‘on the rise’, which led to the creation of many new employment opportunities. The industrial revolution offered jobs to the working-class, while also offering dangerous work environments. Many individuals were employed in factories with large mechanical machines. Although these machines helped the company with productivity and efficiency, they posed a tremendous amount of safety and health risks. Many companies were faced with unprecedented lawsuits as a result of employee injuries. The suit mounted by Gilham Banes was the first of a flood of suits alleging that employers were legally obliged to compensate employees for injuries arising in the course of their employment that came before American courts in the quarter century prior to the Civil War. This new phenomenon of employer liability suits marked a decisive moment in American labor and legal history, for it confronted courts with a demand that they impose on employers a clear legal obligation to safeguard their employees’ present and future earning capacity commensurate with the employer’s claim to the employees’ obedience on the job. (Tomlins, 1988) Conclusion Although many historians disagree, the management of slavery made many important contributions to modern management. Through the use of many positions such as overseers and masters, slave owners were able to manage thousands of slaves in different capacities. Many individuals choose to disregard the management of slavery on the basis of racism and the bad criticism surround it; however, the management of slavery has shaped management as many know it today. The railroads also made huge contributions to modern management. Positions such as clerks and financial officers are still widely used today to sustain business operations. The managers of railroads were able to communicate over long distances and keep business operational. Legal construction, like railroads and slavery, helped shaped the management structure. Employers now abide by laws that protect workers against harm on the job. Many historians rate different industries as contributing the most to modern management, but slavery , railroads, and legal construction has shaped management in an unparallel way. References Chandler, A. D. (1965). The railroads: Pioneers in modern corporate management. The Business History Review, 39(1), 16-40. Cooke, B. (2003). The denial of slavery in management studies. Journal of Management Studies, 40(8), 1895-1918. Tomlins, C. L. (1988). The mysterious power: Industrial accidents and the legal construction of employment relations in Massachusetts, 1800-1850. Law and History Review, 6(2), 375-438.